The Influence of Sufism on the Asian Subcontinen
Dedicating their whole being to the Absolute, the Sufies in the Asia Sub Continent achieved their spiritual goal through intuition, esoteric knowledge, and experience of the mystical world. Theirs was naturally the antithesis of the solely intellectual experience fostered by some of the philosophers. Some Suhrawardī leaders and other dervishes played an important role in the power struggle of the ruling classes and aristocracy and pressured the government into taking a very narrow view of Islam. However, the large number of eminent Sufis whose vision of Islamic spiritual life was broadly based gave moral courage to the people by awakening in them spiritual values and reliance on God during calamities such as drought, floods, and panic due to protracted wars and foreign invasions. The early Chishtiyyah believed that contact with the saintly was the only means by which people would renounce evil or convert to Islam. The social and economic position of the masses of Muslim converts who accepted Islam under a variety of pressures was in fact no better than that of the Hindu masses, because of the dominance of the discriminating ruling classes. Nevertheless, the khanqahs did offer peace and comfort to the thousands of Muslims who crowded the towns. The lack of literary evidence is the most formidable obstacle to the presentation of any pictures of village khanqahs, where the tombs of local Pirs and the graves of local martyrs both real and fake offered the sole spiritual comfort to the inhabitants in their sufferings and anguish. The urs (death anniversaries) and other ceremonies celebrated in khanqahs developed into significant cultural institutions and were eagerly awaited by both poor and rich alike.
Not only was Sufi poetry an expression of the mystic love of thirsty soul seeking an intuitive understanding of God, but it was also avenue for the outlet of emotions and spiritual feelings which would otherwise never have been expressed because of the fury of the orthodox, social, inhibitions, and political repressions. Sufi poetry in Hindi and regional languages opened a fresh avenue for a new spiritual, serene, and colorful way of life. The Natha Panthī and Vaishnavite symbols did not necessarily make them syncretic, for a number of Sufis who used such symbols enjoyed a reputation for excessively deep devotion to Islam. They were designed to be shared with the experiences of their countrymen whose spirits passionately loved to attain the higher reaches of Reality. Both the Sufi poets of the regional languages and the pioneers of Hindu bhaktī (devotional) movements rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, falsehood, hypocrisy, and stupidity and tried to create a world in which spiritual bliss was the all-consuming goal. The devotion of some of the rulers and members of the governing classes to the Sufis went a long way toward making possible the erection of such masterpieces of architecture as the tomb of the Suhrawardī Shaykh Rukn al-Dīn in Multan, the khanqah of Mir Sayyid Alī Hamadānī in Srinagar (Kashmir), and the tombs of Shaykh Muhòammad Ghawth in Gwalior and Shaykh Salīm Chishtī at Fatehpur Sikri. Eve the Mughal miniatures did not neglect the Sufi landscape; some of them integrate Sufi themes with the bhaktas (Hindu devotees). The most serious threat to the survival of Sufism was the presumptuous claims of Sufi charlatans and impostors. The latter exploited Sufi influence to their own advantage. Their poetry and music promoted immoral practices, the use of drugs, and thaumaturgy and was a great threat to a spiritual world view of the genuine Sufis. But genuine Sufism survived this and other threats and has managed to keep alive to this day.
SUFISM “Qalandariyyah”
The founding of Sufi orders synchronized with the movement of itinerant dervishes who did not observe the customary rules of Sufi life and normal social behavior. They considered khanqah life sacrilegious and profane. The Chishti records portray them as being extremely rude to the Suhrawardi leaders, but somewhat more considerate toward the Chishtiyyah because of their humility. Fakhr al-Din Iraqi visited Shaykh al-Din in the company of qalandars. Another exception made by Shaykh Baha al-Din was in the case of his most famous disciple, Mir Sayyid Uthman of Marwand in Sistan, who came to be known as Lal Shahbaz (The Red Falcon). He established his khanqah at Sehwan in Sind at the site of an old Shaivite sanctuary. Incredible miracles are said to have been performed by him, and even his tomb in Sehwan is known for innumerable miracles. Verses said to have been composed by the members of the Sehwan khanqah tend to indicate th
at they were very deeply devoted to Hazrat Ali ibn Abu Talib and reinvigorated Hoallajian traditions in their poetry. His disciples developed bi-shar (indifferent to Shariah) practices and came to be known as malangs. Their annual fair in the month of Shawwal attracts enormous crowds in Sehwan from all parts of Pakistan.
The Haydari and Jawaliqi branches of qalandars also made a deep impact on Indian spiritual life. Wandering from place to place throughout India, the qalandars who sang love songs and walked on burning fire and ate red hot charcoals presented a staggering spectacle to the urban and rural population of the country. They did not fail, however, to arouse spiritual sensitivity among the Muslim converts, who had not forgotten the siddhas and yogis of their Hindu milieu.
Like the Suhrawardis, the Chishtis also initiated the qalandars into their orders. One of the most prominent qalandars of the Chishtiyyah Order was Shaykh Abu Ali Qalandar. His letters explain Sufism and its many controversial aspects. Although a Diwan ascribed to him is apocryphal, some verses and quatrains which appear genuine remind the reader of Ahomad Ghazzali and Iraqi. He died at Panipat in 724/1324.
The founding of Sufi orders synchronized with the movement of itinerant dervishes who did not observe the customary rules of Sufi life and normal social behavior. They considered khanqah life sacrilegious and profane. The Chishti records portray them as being extremely rude to the Suhrawardi leaders, but somewhat more considerate toward the Chishtiyyah because of their humility. Fakhr al-Din Iraqi visited Shaykh al-Din in the company of qalandars. Another exception made by Shaykh Baha al-Din was in the case of his most famous disciple, Mir Sayyid Uthman of Marwand in Sistan, who came to be known as Lal Shahbaz (The Red Falcon). He established his khanqah at Sehwan in Sind at the site of an old Shaivite sanctuary. Incredible miracles are said to have been performed by him, and even his tomb in Sehwan is known for innumerable miracles. Verses said to have been composed by the members of the Sehwan khanqah tend to indicate th
at they were very deeply devoted to Hazrat Ali ibn Abu Talib and reinvigorated Hoallajian traditions in their poetry. His disciples developed bi-shar (indifferent to Shariah) practices and came to be known as malangs. Their annual fair in the month of Shawwal attracts enormous crowds in Sehwan from all parts of Pakistan.
The Haydari and Jawaliqi branches of qalandars also made a deep impact on Indian spiritual life. Wandering from place to place throughout India, the qalandars who sang love songs and walked on burning fire and ate red hot charcoals presented a staggering spectacle to the urban and rural population of the country. They did not fail, however, to arouse spiritual sensitivity among the Muslim converts, who had not forgotten the siddhas and yogis of their Hindu milieu.
Like the Suhrawardis, the Chishtis also initiated the qalandars into their orders. One of the most prominent qalandars of the Chishtiyyah Order was Shaykh Abu Ali Qalandar. His letters explain Sufism and its many controversial aspects. Although a Diwan ascribed to him is apocryphal, some verses and quatrains which appear genuine remind the reader of Ahomad Ghazzali and Iraqi. He died at Panipat in 724/1324.
The Haydari and Jawaliqi branches of qalandars also made a deep impact on Indian spiritual life. Wandering from place to place throughout India, the qalandars who sang love songs and walked on burning fire and ate red hot charcoals presented a staggering spectacle to the urban and rural population of the country. They did not fail, however, to arouse spiritual sensitivity among the Muslim converts, who had not forgotten the siddhas and yogis of their Hindu milieu.
Like the Suhrawardis, the Chishtis also initiated the qalandars into their orders. One of the most prominent qalandars of the Chishtiyyah Order was Shaykh Abu Ali Qalandar. His letters explain Sufism and its many controversial aspects. Although a Diwan ascribed to him is apocryphal, some verses and quatrains which appear genuine remind the reader of Ahomad Ghazzali and Iraqi. He died at Panipat in 724/1324.
“Majdhubs (Enraptured Sufis)”
In Sufi traditions, the malamatis are holy men who deliberately led an outrageous life in order to conceal their spiritual achievements. The malamatiyyah, however, hardly found any respite from their admirers. The same was the case with the majdhubs or enraptured mystics. Many Sufis lived in a state of ecstasy for shorter or longer periods, but some never regained mental stability. Just as there was no external criterion by which to judge a true Sufi or by which to distinguish him from a charlatan, so it was difficult to distinguish a majdhub from a lunatic. In the popular mind, however, majdhubs were supernatural beings who could perform incredible miracles, and both Hindus and Muslims vied with one another in exhibiting devotion to them.
In all decades and in all centuries, there was no dearth of majdhubs. Preposterous stories are told about their spiritual achievements. Biographical notes on some of them are ava
ilable in even sober hagiological literature, but none could surpass Muhoammad Said Sarmad in his contribution to the colorful mystical life and exuberance of emotions in poetry. He was an Armenian Jew who came from Kashan but embraced Islam under the influence of his teachers, Mulla Soadra and his contemporary Mir Findarski. The hoikmat al-ishraq and wahodat al-wujud became the breath of his nostrils. He earned his living as a merchant and amassed a considerable fortune from his overseas trade. In 1042/ 1632-33 he visited Thatta, where he fell violently in love with a Hindu boy, Abhai Chand by name. In 1044/ 1634-35, Sarmad went to Lahore and from thence to Hyderabad, Deccan. Around 1064/ 1654, Sarmad reached Delhi, where Prince Dara Shukuh became his devotee. The depths of Sarmads ineffable experience in the mysteries of Divine Love have been articulated in his quatrains of indescribable beauty, although they tend to offend orthodox sentiments.
In 1071/ 1660-61 Emperor Awrangzeb, in his bid to weed out Dara Shukuhs influence completely, passed orders to execute Sarmad. When Sarmad was taken to the gallows, the executioner proceeded to cover his eyes, but Sarmad, preventing him from doing so, cast a glance at him and said, smiling, "Come in whatever garb you choose, I recognize you well," and recited the following verse:
There was an uproar and we opened our eyes from the eternal sleep,
Saw that the night of wickedness endured, so slept again.
You have seen kings, dervishes and qalandars,
Come, see the intoxicated Sarmad in his wretched condition.
Mythical stories were also associated with Sarmad and his quatrains. Both in the history of Sufism and in the popular mind, Sarmad came to occupy the same status that was held by Hoallaj. Rightly did one of his verses earlier prophesy:
A long time since the fame of Mansur became an ancient relic,
I will exhibit with my head the gallow and cord.
In Sufi traditions, the malamatis are holy men who deliberately led an outrageous life in order to conceal their spiritual achievements. The malamatiyyah, however, hardly found any respite from their admirers. The same was the case with the majdhubs or enraptured mystics. Many Sufis lived in a state of ecstasy for shorter or longer periods, but some never regained mental stability. Just as there was no external criterion by which to judge a true Sufi or by which to distinguish him from a charlatan, so it was difficult to distinguish a majdhub from a lunatic. In the popular mind, however, majdhubs were supernatural beings who could perform incredible miracles, and both Hindus and Muslims vied with one another in exhibiting devotion to them.
In all decades and in all centuries, there was no dearth of majdhubs. Preposterous stories are told about their spiritual achievements. Biographical notes on some of them are ava
ilable in even sober hagiological literature, but none could surpass Muhoammad Said Sarmad in his contribution to the colorful mystical life and exuberance of emotions in poetry. He was an Armenian Jew who came from Kashan but embraced Islam under the influence of his teachers, Mulla Soadra and his contemporary Mir Findarski. The hoikmat al-ishraq and wahodat al-wujud became the breath of his nostrils. He earned his living as a merchant and amassed a considerable fortune from his overseas trade. In 1042/ 1632-33 he visited Thatta, where he fell violently in love with a Hindu boy, Abhai Chand by name. In 1044/ 1634-35, Sarmad went to Lahore and from thence to Hyderabad, Deccan. Around 1064/ 1654, Sarmad reached Delhi, where Prince Dara Shukuh became his devotee. The depths of Sarmads ineffable experience in the mysteries of Divine Love have been articulated in his quatrains of indescribable beauty, although they tend to offend orthodox sentiments.
In 1071/ 1660-61 Emperor Awrangzeb, in his bid to weed out Dara Shukuhs influence completely, passed orders to execute Sarmad. When Sarmad was taken to the gallows, the executioner proceeded to cover his eyes, but Sarmad, preventing him from doing so, cast a glance at him and said, smiling, "Come in whatever garb you choose, I recognize you well," and recited the following verse:
There was an uproar and we opened our eyes from the eternal sleep,
Saw that the night of wickedness endured, so slept again.
You have seen kings, dervishes and qalandars,
Come, see the intoxicated Sarmad in his wretched condition.
Mythical stories were also associated with Sarmad and his quatrains. Both in the history of Sufism and in the popular mind, Sarmad came to occupy the same status that was held by Hoallaj. Rightly did one of his verses earlier prophesy:
A long time since the fame of Mansur became an ancient relic,
I will exhibit with my head the gallow and cord.
In 1071/ 1660-61 Emperor Awrangzeb, in his bid to weed out Dara Shukuhs influence completely, passed orders to execute Sarmad. When Sarmad was taken to the gallows, the executioner proceeded to cover his eyes, but Sarmad, preventing him from doing so, cast a glance at him and said, smiling, "Come in whatever garb you choose, I recognize you well," and recited the following verse:
There was an uproar and we opened our eyes from the eternal sleep,
Saw that the night of wickedness endured, so slept again.
You have seen kings, dervishes and qalandars,
Come, see the intoxicated Sarmad in his wretched condition.
Mythical stories were also associated with Sarmad and his quatrains. Both in the history of Sufism and in the popular mind, Sarmad came to occupy the same status that was held by Hoallaj. Rightly did one of his verses earlier prophesy:
A long time since the fame of Mansur became an ancient relic,
I will exhibit with my head the gallow and cord.
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